Introduction to and Issues in Research
In this first module we will begin a semester-long conversation about what research is and how it relates to you and what you do.
Unfortunately, most consumers of research and even some researchers do not spend a lot of time thinking about such things. Plato said that "a life unexamined is not worth living". You could also say that research unexamined is not worth reporting. We will not only examine research but the basic assumptions on which the research is built.
What you believe colors how you see the world. Is the glass half empty or half full? What researchers believe colors how they do research, the areas they choose to focus on and the questions they ask. Is there a problem with the instructional methods or with the students? See an example. It is important to think about these kinds of things when you are doing research and reading research articles. What you believe about the nature of knowledge, what is actually "knowable", and how one comes to know things impacts how you think about research and how you do research yourself.
Research methods are tools. Tools are usually chosen based on how you see the problem. If you see a broken fence and think you need to re-nail the boards then you choose a hammer. If you think you need to fasten the fence boards together with wire then you choose wire cutters and pliers. Tools can also shape how you see the problem. If all you know how to use is a hammer, then the world is full of things that need pounding. In Module Two we will look at research questions and explore how these questions shape the methods used.
While Punch does not go into the details of the paradigm debates of the last 30 years, he does touch on them in section 1.1 and will follow up on some aspects later in the book. I want to draw your attention to the second to the last paragraph in section 1.1 and reiterate that "any researcher makes assumptions, especially about how questions are answered and knowledge is developed, and about the nature of data. Those assumptions are connected to paradigm issues." Even though we will be following a more pragmatic approach since this is an introductory class, debates usually arise in class discussion about methods that stem from underlying paradigm issues. For that reason, I like to go into a bit more depth in this first module to build a base from which to work through such discussions.
Paradigms, philosophy, values, beliefs, epistemology, orientations, or whatever you choose to call it, should not determine research findings. They provide the reasons why people conduct research and therefore have a lot to do with the choices made at the beginning of a research project such as what to study, what questions to ask, and how the findings will be used. The same "object" of study can be examined for a large variety of reasons, under a large variety of motivations, and yield the same findings or different findings depending on the aspect the researcher focused on and the methods used. As an example, there was a study done several years ago about job training in an eastern European country. The government conducted a quantitative survey of participants that found the program was very successful and almost all the participants found jobs. An unrelated group of researchers from a local university conducted a qualitative study and found that the actual job training program was not successful at all in that the participants did not learn new skills necessary to be employable in the work force or useful job search skills. What it did do was to give them access to an informal network of people who found them jobs at their original skill levels. So, yes, it was successful in that they people found work but not in the way the government intended on in the way their survey showed. With those results, do you continue attempting to provide the same training, do you restructure the training in an attempt to teach the same things in different ways, do you try training for different things, or do you stop training and set up a networking program instead?
The chapter from Rossman and Rallis linked in the reading section provides a good overview. Looking specifically at one paradigm, critical theory, Carspecken notes that "criticalists most often feel compelled to conduct research as a way of bettering the oppressed and downtrodden. It is a personal need to do so, not exactly a choice. But that pertains to our value orientation, to the reasons why we conduct research and to our choice of subjects and sites to investigate. This orientation does not determine the "facts" we find in the field. Here, in the realm of "fact", the realm of validity claims made at the end of a study, values and facts are interlinked but not fused. And the sorts of values involved in research findings need not be the same as the values defining our orientation. This distinction is an important one because good critical research should not be biased. Critical epistemology does not guarantee the finding of "facts" that match absolutely what one wants to find." (from Critical Ethnography in Educational Research)
Following is a chart that pulls out the essentials of four major paradigms. It is adapted from ones by Todd Schmitz, Nancy Chism, Beverly Tillman, and Lawrence Sipe and Susan Constable.
Paradigms also influence what is seen as an ethical issue in research and what is not. The main ethical issues in conducting research revolve around the ethical treatment of participants (including informed consent) and the ethical analysis and reporting of data. One of the things to think about though, is that given a variety of epistemological beliefs and social values, different people are going to think different things are ethical and unethical.As Carspecken noted, researchers from a critical theory perspective may be more sensitive to issues in research that presume the status quo is immutable as in the Functionalism perspective in the previous example. In educational research are learners are perceived as objects to be studied or participants in the research process? The objectification of people at the extreme end has led to situations such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Defining for yourself what is ethical or not can depend both on your individual beliefs and on how strongly committed you are to those beliefs. What is flexible and what is not? How does culture impact what is seen as ethical? How do issues of power impact?
The main ethical issues in using research to inform practice include similar issues as above occurring in practitioner-designed action research as well as things like "cherry-picking" research to support a particular program agenda and not keeping up with research in the field. There are also questions like: is there an ethical responsibility to do research or research-like activities such as evaluation? Is there an ethical responsibility to share results of personal research with research participants? Is evidence-based practice ethical when implemented irrespective of context? Where do issues related to classroom research fit into the mix?
Confused? Maybe this will help:
"Piled Higher and Deeper" by Jorge Cham
www.phdcomics.com
- Note that this category is broken down into two categories in the Rossman and Rallis reading
Readings
There is quite a lot of reading in this class. The readings are designed to give you an introduction to both the nature of knowledge and and the process of research. Try not to get bogged down in the academic and philosophical language some of the authors use. It is very easy to find yourself reading along and realize you have no idea what you just read. You will probably start to run across some new terminology in this section. Words like epistemology, ontology, axiology, paradigms, and others will crop up. There is a discussion forum set up for definitions of new terms. Please feel free to post definitions that you like and to ask for clarification there if you find some definitions to be incompatible.
Everyone is responsible for all the required readings and at least one of the recommended readings.
Required
- Punch, Chapters 1 and 2
- Researcher as Learner, from "Learning in the Field" by Rossman and Rallis (this is still a link to Oncourse so let me know if you can't access it.)
- Ethics and Research from "How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education" by Fraenkel and Wallen (this is still a link to Oncourse so let me know if you can't access it.)
Recommended
- Merriam & Simpson Chapter 1 (NOTE: this is the only chapter that will be linked. If you want to read the rest of the recommended readings in this book you will need to purchase the book)
- Philosophical Foundations and Current Theoretical Perspectives in Qualitative Research Journal of College Student Development 43(4) 434-445
- Politics of Knowledge Construction by Deshler and Grudens-Schuck in the Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education , (2000)
Assignment:
In the next two weeks I'd like to take a look at some of the philosophical issues from Module One in conjunction with our roles as practitioners. The purpose of this assignment is to begin working on two of the course objectives: to understand and appreciate the philosophies that undergird and inform research practice; and to develop a personal perspective on what constitutes knowledge.
This paper is an opportunity for you to reflect on the ways of thinking about knowledge and how they affect research. You already have a personal perspective on what constitutes knowledge but I want you to examine it in relation to the course readings. This paper should include:
- A description of your personal perspective on the paradigms. Using the chart on page 45 of Rossman and Rallis, where do you see yourself and why? Most people will not fall neatly into one "camp" but will find bits that appeal to them from multiple perspectives. Please include:
- Discussion of the parts of the paradigm that "fit" better and those that may not "fit" as well.
- Reflection on the sources of your beliefs on subjectivity, objectivity, and change and how they shape your perspective
- Analysis of how your personal perspective impacts your approach to research as an adult educator using research to inform your practice and as an adult educator personally conducting research
The paper should be 700-900 words (3-4 pages), double-spaced, and in APA format. (I reserve the right to deduct points from papers significantly under 700 words and significantly over 900 words NOT including title page and reference page.) The reference page should include any class readings and any outside readings you cite in the paper. I expect you to cite from the readings appropriately using APA format and for all references to use APA format. The paper will be graded on the quality of your analysis of your perspective in relation to the paradigms described in the readings and the use and production of research as an adult educator.
The paper is to be turned in using the Assignments Tool by September 5th. (Please note this is a Wednesday. All other assignments will be due on Tuesdays but I moved this one out because of the Labor Day holiday.)
